1、 SERIES EDITOR: LEE JOHNSON LATE IMPERIAL CHINESE ARMIES 1520-1840 TEXT BY CHRIS PEERS COLOUR PLATES BY CHRISTA HOOK First published in Great Britain in 1997 by Osprey, a division of Reed Consumer Books Limited, Michelin House, 81 Fulham Road, London SW3 6RB Auckland and Melbourne. Copyright 1997 Re
2、ed International Books Ltd All rights reserved. Apart from any fair dealing for the purpose of private study, research, criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in
3、 any form or by any means, electronic, electrical, chemical, mechanical, optical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. Enquiries should be addressed to the Publishers. Osprey 2nd Floor, Unit 6, Spring Gardens, Tinworth Street, Vauxhall, London SE
4、11 5EH ISBN 1 85532 599 3 Filmset in Singapore by Pica Ltd Printed through World Print Ltd., Hong Kong Editor: Sharon van der Merwe Design: Adrian Hodgkins For a catalogue of all titles published by Osprey Military, please write to: Osprey Direct, PO Box 443, Peterborough, PE2 6ALA Acknowledgements
5、The author especially wishes to express his thanks to the following for their invaluable help and advice with this and the previous volumes: Duncan Head, Thorn Richardson of the Royal Armouries, and the staff of the Department of Oriental Antiquities at the British Museum. Publishers Note Readers ma
6、y wish to study this title in conjunction with the following Osprey publications: MAA 284 Imperial Chinese Armies (1) 200BC - AD589 MAA 295 Imperial Chinese Armies (2) 590 - AD1260 MAA 306 Chinese Civil War Armies 1911-49 MAA 218 Ancient Chinese Armies MAA 251 Medieval Chinese Armies 1260-1520 Artis
7、ts note Readers may care to note that the original paintings from which the colour plates in this book were prepared are available for private sale. All reproduction copyright whatsoever is retained by the Publisher. All enquiries should be addressed to: Scorpio Gallery, P.O. Box 475, Hailsham, East
8、 Sussex BN27 2SL The Publishers regret that they can enter into no correspondence upon this matter. LATE IMPERIAL CHINESE ARMIES 1520-1840 INTRODUCTION T his is the fifth and final volume in a series which has attempted to outline the military history of China from the earliest historical records un
9、til the middle of the 19th century. Until recently this history has been relatively inaccessible to the general public in the West. There has, therefore, been a tendency to suppose that the art of war in China remained static over long periods of time, and that the parlous state of its armed forces
10、at the time of the Opium Wars was their normal and unalterable condition, somehow rooted in the non-military nature of the people of China and their culture. It is to be hoped that this series has gone some way to dispel that myth, and to promote some awareness of a history as varied, as interesting
11、, and indeed as violent, as that of Europe. This volume covers the period between the arrival of the first seaborne Europeans and the beginning of the series of unequal treaties which forcibly opened China to European influence from the 1840s. During the Middle Ages, China had been in the forefront
12、of military technology, pioneering the development of the cannon and the ocean- going ship, which foreigners were later to use against her. After the 15th century this progress was not maintained, and stagnation set in. The reasons for this remain the subject of much debate, but we can identify some
13、 of the main factors: the lack of interest in warfare shown by the scholar class; excessive government regulation, driven by the fear that improved weapons might get into the hands of rebels; bankruptcy and corruption during the declining years of the Ming dynasty; and perhaps above all the lack of
14、local rivals of comparable strength, which bred a complacent assumption that Chinese organisation and numbers would always prevail. Whatever the reasons, by the 16th century European firearms were already superior to Chinese designs, and by the middle of the 19th, China had fallen so far behind the
15、industrialising West as to be effectively helpless. The huge size of the empire, its cultural self-confidence and its political sophistication prevented this technological imbalance from being as immediately disastrous as it had been for many other societies. There was never any question of the Chin
16、ese being subjugated by a handful of foreigners, as the Aztecs and Incas had been. In fact, as late as the end of the 18th century - following an era which had seen the world increasingly divided into colonial powers and their victims - China was still on the side of the winners. The Ching dynasty o
17、f the Manchus, who had overthrown the native Ming in the 1640s, then ruled over the largest and most populous empire in the world, with territories that had doubled in size in the previous few decades. 3 Ming flags, from a 16th century scroll. a. White animal on red ground, outlined in white, with y
18、ellow clouds; streamer white, with alternate bands of red and blue; fringe dark blue or red. b. Dark blue, with red character. Under the Manchus, China reached its greatest ever extent - roughly the present boundaries of the Peoples Republic plus Taiwan, Mongolia and the northern part of Manchuria.
19、In the process of gaining this ter- ritory they had finally subjugated the Central Asian nomads, the main threat to Chinese civilisation for two millennia. The period covered here also saw: the building of the present Great Wall; the forestalling of a Japanese attempt to conquer Korea; the tremendou
20、s and protracted struggle for power between the Ming and the Manchus; and successful Manchu expeditions as far afield as Siberia, Kazakhstan and Nepal. Inevitably, Chinas increasing contact with the West provides us with a new perspective on its military system. For the first time we are able to tak
21、e a detached view, and see it not just through Chinese eyes, but through those of outsiders. Perhaps equally inevitably, the picture we get is not a flattering one. When reading the accounts of people as far apart in time as de Rada in the 1570s and Huc in the 1840s, it is impossible not to be struc
22、k by the similarities. The Chinese, we are repeatedly told, are cowardly and unwarlike, and when forced to fight, do so in disorganised crowds, capering and shouting in a ridiculous manner, with the emphasis on show rather than effectiveness. Reconciling this picture with the real military achieveme
23、nts of the Ming and Ching dynasties is one of the more difficult tasks attempted here. We are helped, however, by a plentiful supply of information from the Chinese. The number of official and local histories, memoirs and gazetteers containing military data is vast, although only a tiny pro- portion
24、 is yet available in translation. Contemporary military encyclopaedias, of which the most famous is Mao Yuan-is Wu Pei Chih of 1621, are another indispensable source. And of course there is a great deal of surviving artistic evidence, weapons and armour - much of which, ironically, has found its way
25、 to museums in the United Kingdom as a result of the defeats inflicted on the Ching in the 19th century. I have tried to acknowledge the outstanding contribution to this series of the curators of some of this material. Naturally, they are not respon- sible for any errors, nor for any of my idiosyncr
26、asies of interpretation. 4 CHRONOLOGY This Chinese two-handed sword dates from the 19th century, but blades of identical shape were already in use in the 16th - see Plate A. (Board of Trustees of the 1517 Mongols defeated at Ying-chou. Arrival of the first Royal Armouries, No. XXVI-58s) Portuguese a
27、mbassador. 1525 Seagoing junks ordered destroyed in an attempt to isolate China from foreign influences. c.1540 Construction of modern Great Wall system begun. c.1540-c.1565 Heyday of wo-kou piracy in south-east China. 1550 Siege of Peking by Altan Khan. 1567 Ban on overseas trade lifted. c.1583 Ris
28、e to power of Nurhachi, future founder of the Manchu state. 1593-98 War against the Japanese in Korea. 1618-19 Major Ming offensive against the Manchus defeated. 1626 Ming victory over Manchus at Ning-yuan. Death of Nurhachi. 1636 Manchus proclaim the Ching dynasty. 1644 Death of last Ming emperor.
29、Short-lived Shun dynasty of Li Tzu-cheng. Manchus capture Peking. 1661-1722 Reign of Kang-hsi emperor. 1664 Manchu conquest of Fukien. All of mainland China now under Ching control. 1673-81 Revolt of the Three Feudatories. 1683 Fall of the pro-Ming Cheng regime in Taiwan. 1689 Sino-Russian border fi
30、xed by Treaty of Nerchinsk. 1696 Defeat of Galdan Khan. Eastern Mongolia becomes a Ching protectorate. 1720 Tibet becomes a Chinese vassal. 1736-96 Reign of Chien-lung emperor. 1757 Imperial decree restricts foreign trade to Canton. 1757-59 Defeat of the Jungar Mongols and their Muslim allies. 1792
31、Gurkhas of Nepal defeated by a Chinese expedition. 1793 British embassy under Lord Macartney in Peking. 1817-27 Muslim Jihad of Jahangir in the Tarim Basin. 1839 Outbreak of first Opium War with British. 1842 Treaty of Nanking opens more Chinese ports to Western trade. British seize base at Hong Kon
32、g. 5 Ming artillery, from 16th century manuals: a. A breech-loading fo-lang-chi chung, from Chou Hai Tu Pien, 1562. b. A three-barrelled handgun from Wu Pei Chih, 1621. c. A gun for shipboard use, from Chou Hai Tu Pien. THE LATE MING, 1517-1598 Although the Ming dynasty had expelled the Mongols from
33、 China in 1368, in the 16th century the main external threat still came from Mongol descendants on the northern frontier, who were intermittently united into confederations under leaders claiming descent from Chinggis Khan. The Cheng-te emperor of the Ming, who reigned from 1506 to 1521, has been ju
34、dged harshly by traditional historians, in part because he showed an unseemly interest in military affairs and was not content to remain a fig- urehead. He achieved some success in battle against the Mongols, but under his successor, Chia-ching (1522-67), the gains were quickly thrown away. The new
35、ruler presided over endless fac- tional disputes at court, which prevented the development of a consistent military policy, but at the same time he was fanatically anti- Mongol and blocked all attempts at reaching an accommodation with them, punishing officials who dared to undertake negotiations. T
36、ypical of Chia-chings style was an edict which ordered that the character i, referring to the northern barbarians, should always be written as small as possible. Not surprisingly, such measures failed to deter them. In the 1540s the Oirat leader Altan Khan reunited the eastern Mongols and began to l
37、ay the foundations of an organised state: building cities, promoting agriculture, and attracting Chinese renegades to serve him. He repeatedly asked permission to trade with China, but this was refused. The Ming instead toyed with plans for an attack on him - an enterprise which was eventually aband
38、oned because of the gov- ernments growing financial difficulties. In any case, in 1548 Altan struck first, capturing and demolishing the frontier walls in the Hsuan-fu area. Two years later his troopers rode round the eastern flank of the unfinished Great Wall and laid siege to Peking. Although Alta
39、n eventually withdrew, this humiliation highlighted the powerlessness of the Ming field armies, and gave extra impetus to the policy of building walls to keep the nomads at bay. Two decades of destructive raiding followed, until in 1571, after the death of Chia-ching, Altan was finally allowed to tr
40、ade peacefully. For the next 20 years the Mongol frontier was relatively quiet. The same indecisiveness characterised the Chia-ching reign on other fronts. In 1513。2、在福州晚报项目建设过程中，福州晚报项目建设单位根据总体规划以及项目建设地期对本期工程福州晚报项目地块的控制性指标，本着“经济适宜、综合利用”的原则进行科学规划、合理布局，最大限度地提高土地综合利用率。六、福州晚报项目选址综合评价（略）第六章 总图布置一、福州晚报项目总
41、平面布置方案（一）平面布置总体方案1、按照建（构）筑物的生产性质和使用功能，福州晚报项目总体设计根据物流关系将场区划分为生产区、办公生活区、公用设施区等三个功能区，要求功能分区明确，人流、物流便捷流畅，生产工艺流程顺畅简捷；这样布置既能充分利用现有场地，有利于生产设施的联系，又有利于外部水、电、气等能源的接入，管线敷设短捷，相互联系方便。2、根据福州晚报项目建设单位发展趋势，综合考虑工艺、土建、公用等各种技术因素，做到总图合理布置，达到“规划投资省、建设工期短、生产成本低、土地综合利用率高”的效果。（二）主要主体工程布置方案（略）（三）场区道路设计方案（略）（四）福州晚报项目建筑设计方案（略）
42、（五）福州晚报项目建设区绿化设计（略）（六）给排水布置方案（略）二、运输组成（一）运输组成总体设计1、福州晚报项目建设规划区内部和外部运输做到物料流向合理，场内部和外部运输、接卸、贮存形成完整的、连续的工作系统，尽量使场内、外的运输与车间内部运输密切结合统一考虑。2、福州晚报项目建设单位外部运输和内部运输可采用送货制；采用合适的运输方式和运输路线，使企业的物流组成达到合理优化；把企业的组成内部从原材料输入、产品外运以及车间与车间、车间与仓库、车间内部各工序之间的物料流动都作为整体系统进行物流系统设计，使全场物料运输形成有机的整体。（二）场内运输（略）（三）场外运输（略）三、总图主要数据（略）第
43、七章 工程设计总体方案一、工程设计条件（一）工程地质条件福州晚报项目建设地属于工业用地，其地形地貌类型简单，岩土工程地质条件优良，水文地质条件良好，适宜本期工程福州晚报项目建设。（二）设计荷载（可变荷载标准值）（略）（三）土建工程设计年限及安全等级（略）二、建筑规划方案（一）建筑设计规范和标准1、砌体结构设计规范（GB50003-2001）。2、建筑地基基础设计规范（GB50007-2002）。3、建筑结构荷载规范（GB50009-2001）。（二）建筑工程设计总体要求（略）（三）建筑设计方案（略）（五）建筑物防雷保护（略）三、主要材料选用标准要求（一）混凝土要求根据混凝土结构耐久性设计规范（
44、GB/T50476）之规定，确定构筑物结构构件最低混凝土强度等级，基础混凝土结构的环境类别为一类，本工程上部主体结构采用C30混凝土，上部结构构造柱、圈梁、过梁、基础采用C25混凝土，设备基础混凝土强度等级采用C30级，基础混凝土垫层为C15级，基础垫层混凝土为C15级。（二）钢筋及建筑构件选用标准要求1、本工程建筑用钢筋采用国家标准热轧钢筋：基础受力主筋均采用HRB400，箍筋及其他次要构件为HPB300。2、HPB300级钢筋选用E43系列焊条，HRB400级钢筋选用E50系列焊条。3、埋件钢板采用Q235钢、Q345钢，吊钩用HPB235。4、钢材连接所用焊条及方式按相应标准及规范要求。
45、（三）隔墙、围护墙材料本工程框架结构的填充墙采用符合环境保护和节能要求的砌体材料（多孔砖），材料强度均应符合GB50003规范要求：多孔砖强度MU10.0，砂浆强度M10.0-M7.5。（四）水泥及混凝土保护层（略）四、土建工程建设指标本期工程项目预计总建筑面积27602.39平方米，其中：计容建筑面积27602.39平方米，计划建筑工程投资2191.40万元，占项目总投资的26.55%。第八章 公用辅助工程（略）一、供电工程（一）供电条件及年用电量估算（二）供电电源（三）福州晚报项目供电配电方案（四）照明设计（五）电能计量及节能措施（六）电气安全与接地（七）设备防雷及接零保护二、给水、排水工
46、程（一）给水水源及用水量（二）供水方案（三）排水工程三、空调与通风及通讯工程规划（一）福州晚报项目空调方案（二）福州晚报项目通风方案第九章 原辅材料供应及成品管理（略）一、原辅材料供应（一）主要原材料及辅助材料供应（二）主要原材料及辅助材料的质量要求二、原辅材料采购管理及成品贮存（一）原辅材料采购管理1、福州晚报项目建成投产后，福州晚报项目建设单位物资采购部门根据生产实际需要制定原材料采购计划，掌握原材料的性能、特点，在不影响产品质量的前提下，对福州晚报项目所需原辅材料合理地选择品种、规格、质量，为企业节约使用原材料降低采购成本。2、本期工程福州晚报项目所需要的原材料、辅助材料实行统一采购集中
47、供应，并根据所需原材料的质量、价格、运输条件做到货比三家。（二）原辅材料的贮存、运输（三）产成品的贮存第十章 工艺技术设计及设备选型方案（略）一、工艺技术设计确定的原则（一）原料路线确定原则1、福州晚报项目所需原料来源应稳定可靠，福州晚报项目建成后应保证原料的质量和连续供应。2、所需原料应经济易得，就不同原料的投资、成本、生产效率进行比较，选择最为适合、最经济的原料。（二）优质环保木皮生产工艺技术路线确定原则（略）二、工艺技术方案（一）工艺技术方案要求（二）技术来源及先进性说明（三）工业化技术方案可靠性分析三、关键工艺技术说明四、设备选型第十一章 环境保护发展循环经济是我国的一项重大战略决策，
48、是落实党的十八大推进生态文明建设战略部署的重大举措，是加快转变经济发展方式，建设资源节约型、环境友好型社会，实现可持续发展的必然选择。近年来，各地区、各部门大力推动循环经济发展，循环经济理念进一步确立，产业体系逐步完善，发展水平不断提高，经济、社会和环境效益进一步显现。当前，我国已进入全面建成小康社会的决定性阶段，随着工业化、城镇化和农业现代化持续推进，我国能源资源需求将呈刚性增长，废弃物产生量将不断增加，经济增长与资源环境之间的矛盾更加突出，发展循环经济的要求更为迫切。到2020年，绿色制造水平明显提升，绿色制造体系初步建立。制造业发展对资源环境的影响初步缓解。发展循环经济将以资源绿色循环利
49、用为核心，以科技创新和机制创新为动力，以典型模式推广和示范工程建设为抓手，实施循环发展引领行动，着力推进矿产资源与终端制造业、生物资源与终端消费品、“城市矿产”与再生产品以及生产系统与生活系统的循环链接，加快构建循环型生产方式和绿色生活方式。到2020年，主要资源产出率、能源产出率、主要品种再生资源回收率分别比2015年提高15%、18.5%、10%，工业固体废弃物综合利用率、尾矿综合利用率达分别提高到80建，引进国际国内企业承建，鼓励社会团体承建等多种联建方式，实现资源整合、功能互补、人才互动。强化土地集约利用，严格执行土地使用标准，加强土地开发利用动态监管。对产业园区闲置土地进行清理整顿，鼓励开展产业园区新增用地的前期开发和存量用地的二次开发，鼓励对现有工
