1、A Course of English Lexicology第第1页页Without grammar,very little can be conveyed,without vocabulary,nothing can be conveyed.-Wilkins(1972)第第2页页No matter how well the student learns grammar,no matter how successfully he masters the sounds of L2,without words to express a wide range of meanings,communic
2、ation in that language cannot happen in any meaningful way.-McCarthy(1990)第第3页页English LexicologyLectured by:Meng ZhigangAddress:13419596397第第4页页0.1 Nature and Domain of English Lexicology Lexicology:a branch of linguistics,inquiring into the origins and meanings of words.English lexicology aims at
3、investigating and studing the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents,their semantic structures,relations,historical development,formation and usages.第第5页页0.2 Subbranches of Lexicology and Relevant Branches of linguisticsMorphology:branch of grammar which studies the strctures
4、 or forms of words,primarily through the use of morpheme constructure,focusing on the inflections of words and word formation and examine how morphemes are combined to form words and words to form sentences.第第6页页Etymology:the study of the origins and history of the form and meaning of words.Mordern
5、English is derived from the languages of early Germanic tribes with a fairly small vocabulary.We shall study how this small vocabulary has grown into a huge modern English vocabulary(over 1 million)and explain the changes that have taken place in the forms and meanings of words.第第7页页Semantics:the st
6、udy of meanings of different language levels:lexis,syntax,utterence,discourse,etc.But lexicology will focus on the lexical level,the types of meanings and sense relations such as polysemy,homonymy,synonymy,antonymy,hyponymy,and semantic field all belong to the scope of semantic study and constitute
7、an important part of lexicology.第第8页页Stylistics:the study of style.Its concerned with the users choices of linguistic elements in a particular context for special effects.Among the areas of study:lexis,phonology,syntax,graphology,we shall concentrate on lexis,exploring the stylistic values of words.
8、第第9页页Lexigraphy:share with Lexicology the same problems,forms,meanings,and usages of words,but they have a pragmatic difference.A lexicographers task is to record the language as it is used so as to present the genuine picture of words to the reader,providing authoritative reference,whereas the stud
9、ent of lexicology is to acquire the knowledge and information of lexis so as to increase their lexical awareness and capacity of language use.第第10页页第第11页页第第12页页第第13页页第第14页页第第15页页第第16页页第第17页页第第18页页第第19页页第第20页页第第21页页第第22页页第第23页页第第24页页第第25页页第第26页页第第27页页第第28页页第第29页页第第30页页第第31页页第第32页页第第33页页第第34页页第第35页页第第
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11、第86页页第第87页页第第88页页第第89页页第第90页页第第91页页第第92页页Most morphemes are realized bu single morphs like apple,bird,red,want,desire,etc.These morphemes coincide with words as they can stand by themselves and function freely in a sentence.Words of this kind are called mono-morphemic words.Some morphemes,however,ar
12、e realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word.Eg:the morpheme of plurality-shas a set of morphs in different sound context,e.g.in ctas/s/,bags/z/,in matches/iz/.The alternates/s/,/z/and/iz/are three different morphs.第第93页页The same is true of the link verb morpheme be.Its pa
13、st tense is realized by two distinct othographic forms was,were,each of which happens to be a word-form,realizing preteriteand singular,and preteriteand singularrespectively and each has its own phonetic form/woz/or/we:/.Therefore,both was,were and their phonetic forms/woz/or/we:/are morphs.第第94页页An
14、 allomorph refers to a member of a set of morphs,which represent one morpheme.Just as we class phones together as allophones of a single phoneme,so we class morphs together as allomorphs of single morpheme.Take the plural morpheme-sagain.Phonetically,it is realized by/s/,/z/,/iz/,all of which are al
15、lomophs.第第95页页Morphemewouldmorph/wud/morph/wed/morph/ed/morph/d/allomorph 第第96页页3.4Morphemes and word-formation1.AffixesAffix is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme(root or stem).Affixes are limited in number in alnguage,and are limited
16、in number in a language,and are generally classified into two subtypes,prefix and suffix,depending on their position with reference to the root or stem of the word:prefix mini-,un-,dis-suffix al,-tion,-fulAffix may also be divided into inflectional and derivational:第第97页页Inflectional Affixes:walks w
17、alkedwalkingstarswatches第第98页页Derivational Affixes:sleepylovelymeannessamazementdisunity第第99页页Mropheme:Free morphemeBound morpheme:bound rootaffix:inflectional affixderivational affix:prefixsuffix第第100页页2.Root(词根),Stem(词干),Base(词基）A root is the base form of a word which cannot be further analyzed wi
18、thout total loss of identity.That is to say,its that part of the word left when all affixes are removed.In the word“internationalism”,after the removal of prefix“inter-”,suffix“-al”and“-ism”,whats left is the root“nation”.第第101页页A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an affix ca
19、n be added.“Friend”in“friends”and“friendship”in“friendships”are both stems.The former shows that a stem can be equivalent to a root,whereas the latter indicates that a stem may contain two or more roots,pound,such as“girlfriend”,“landlord”,“mailman”,etc.第第102页页A base is used as an all-purpose term,r
20、efering to a form to which affixes of any kind(both derivational and inflectional)can be added.It can be a root or a stem.In the case of internationalists,nation is a base,so are international and internationalist.第第103页页nation(root,stem,base)national(stem,base)international(stem,base)internationali
21、st(stem,base)internationalists第第104页页It should be noted that such an example gives the impression that a stem is just as good as a base.This is not true.In many cases,a form of word can neither be a root nor a stem,but only a base.第第105页页This often happens when we deal with derivational affix ity le
22、aves only the base form impratical,and by further removing im-we have the base form practicla left and by still further analysis,only practice remains.Impacticalityimpactical(base)practical(base)practice(root,stem,base)第第106页页4.Word Formation4.1AffixationAffixation is the formation of words by addin
23、g word-foring or derivation,for new words created in this way are called derivatives.According to the positionas which occupy in words,affixation falls into two subclasses:prefixation and suffixation.第第107页页4.2.1PrefixationPrefixation:the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems.Prefixes d
24、onot generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning.第第108页页1)Negative prefixes:a-(amoral,apolitical);dis-(disloyal,disobey);in-(injustice);il-(illegal);ir-(irresistible);im-(impolite);non-(nonsmoking);un-(unfair,unwilling)第第109页页2.Reversative or Privative Prefixesde-(dehuman
25、ize,deforestation,decentralzie);dis-(disinterested,discoloured);un-(unseat,unhorse,unmask)第第110页页3.Pejorative Prefixesmal-(maltreat,malnutrition,maladminstration);mis-(misinterpret,mistrust,misleading,misconduct);pseudo-(pseudo-scientific,pseudo-democratic,pseudo-friend)第第111页页4.Prefixes of Degree o
26、r Sizearch-(archbishop,arch-captalist,arch-rival);co-(co-worker,co-teacher,co-manager);extra-(extraordinary,extra-large,extra-bright);hyper-(hypercreative,hypercautious,hypercritical)第第112页页macro-(macroeconomics,macrostructure,macrocosm);micro-(microsoft,microcoputer,microwave,microfilm);mini-(minis
27、kirt,minibus,minimarket);out-(outstanding,outwit,outsmart)第第113页页over-(over-react,overestimate,over-indulgence);sub-(sub-system,subnormal,substandard);super-(superstar,supermarket,superhero,superpower);第第114页页sur-(surpass,surtax,surcharge);ultra-(ultra-conservative,ultra-intelligent);under-(underest
28、imate,undervalue,under-develop,undergrowth)第第115页页5.Prefixes of Orientation and Attitudeanti-(anti-government,anti-nuclear,anti-freeze,anti-hero,anti-theater)contra-(contradistinction,contraflow)counter-(counter-accusation,counter-offer,counterstrike,counetr-reform)pro-(pro-democracy,pro-authority,p
29、ro-feminist)第第116页页6)Locative Prefixesextra-(extra-curricular,extra-territorial,extra-marital)fore-(forearm,forehead)inter-(inetpersonal,inerstate,interplay,interbreeding,inter-city,intermarriage)intra-(intra-class,intra-party,intra-generation)super-(superstructure,superscript)第第117页页tele-(telecommu
30、nication,teleprinter,telescope)trans-(transatlantic,transcontinental,trans-world,transplant,translate,transmit,transform,transcribe)第第118页页7.Prefies of Time and Orderex-(ex-professor,ex-convict,ex-lover)fore-(forehead,forefather,foreknowledge)post-(post-trail,post-election,post-independence)第第119页页p
31、re-(pre-trial,pre-retirement,pre-industial,pre-prepared,predetermine)re-(reread,remarriage,reconsider,redistribution)第第120页页8.Number prefixesbi-,di-(bicycle,bilingual,bilateral,bimonthly,diameter)multi-,poly-(multi-candidate,multi-purpose,multi-dimentional,plytechnic,polysyllabic)semi-,demi-,hemi-(s
32、emiautomatic,semi-skilled,demigod半神，hemisphere)第第121页页tri-(triangle,tricolor,tripartite)uni-,mono-(unisex,uniform;monoculture,monocentric)第第122页页9.Conversion Prefixesa-(asleep,aglow,atremble,alive)be-(befirend,bewail;bewildered,beloved)en-(em-)endanger,enrich;embitter,empower第第123页页10.Miscellaneous
33、Prefixesauto-(autobiography,autosuggestion)neo-(neo-Liberal,neo-expressionism)pan-pan-continental,pan-Europeanproto-(proto-horse,proto-coaltion)vice-vice-chairman,vice-governor第第124页页4.2SuffixationSuffixation:the formation of new words by adding suffix to stem.Suffixation mainly change word class.1)
34、Noun Suffixes1)Denominal NounsConcrete:the suffixes of this group are added to noun bases to produce concrete nouns.第第125页页-eer:profiteer,engineer,mountaineer-er:teenager,Londoner,three-wheeler-ess:priestess,stewardess,hostess第第126页页-ette:cigarette,kitchenette,dinerette;-let:droplet,booklet,starlet-
35、ster:gangster,songster,trickster第第127页页Abstract:-age:mileage,storage,coverage-dom:dukedom,officialdom,officialdom-ery,-ry:slavery,delivery,savagery;bakery;jewelry,machinery,pottery第第128页页-ful:armful,mouthful,pocketful-hood:adulthood;dauterhood-ing:carpeting,farning,golfing-ism:absenteeism,consumeris
36、m;terrorism,ageism-ship:ambassadorship,governorship,authorship,sportsmanship,partnership第第129页页2)Deverbal Nouns-ant:assistant,informant,applicant-ee:addressee,transferee,assignee,absentee,divorcee-ent:correspondent,dependent,respondent-er,-or:commander,photographer;recorder,cooker,mixer;collaborator
37、,speculator,elevator第第130页页-age:marriage,linkage,shrinkage,carriage-al:dismissal,survival,portrayal-ance:performance,insurance,attendance-ation,-ition,-tion,-ion:realization,imagination,addition,protection,commision,decision,opertaion第第131页页-ence:adherence,persitence,existence,dependence,recurrence-
38、ing:building,opening,earnings,savings-ment:assessment,puzzlement,resentment第第132页页3)De-adj Nouns-ity:productivity,intensity,superiority;morality,popularity,familiarity-ness:youthfulness,perssiveness,uo-to-dateness第第133页页4)Noun and Adj Suffixes-ese:Chinese,Lebanese,Maltese-an,-ian:American,Australian
39、;Chomskyan,Shakespearian,Elizabethan-ist:socialist,loyalist,methodist-ite(adherent of):Chomskyite,Thatcherite第第134页页2)Adj Suffixes1)Denominal Suffixes-ed:blue-eyed,giant-sized,pear-shaped-ful:merciful,graceful,dutiful-ish:snobbish,monkeyish,sixtyish;Plolish,Jewish;thinnish,plumpish第第135页页-less:namel
40、ess,brainless,humourless;priceless,timeless-like:animal-like,lady-like,dreamlike-ly:soldierly,friendly,cowardly;hourly,fortnightly-y:flowery,smoky,bloody,grassy;doggy,birdy第第136页页2)Deverbal Suffixes-able,-ible:washable,admirable,convertible,permissible-ative,-ize,-sive:talkative,affirmative,active,d
41、ecisive,expansive第第137页页3)Adv Suffixes-ly:gradually,scientificly,publicly-ward,-wards:homewards,downward,skyward-wise:percentage-wise,education-wise第第138页页4)Verb Suffixes-ate:originate,validate,hyphenate-en:strengthen,heighten,flatten,dampen-ify,-fy:solidify,glorify,amplify-ize,-ise:symbolize,fantas
42、ize,institutionalize,visualize第第139页页4.2 Compounding Compounding(or composition)is the formation of new words by joining two or more bases.Words formed in this way are called compounds.So a compound is a“lexical unit consisting of more than one base and functioning both grammatically and semanticall
43、y as a single word”.Coupounds can be written solid(silkworm),hyphenated(honey-bee),and open(tear gas and easy chair)第第140页页4.2.1Formation of compounds1)Noun Compoundsn+n:moon walk,end productn+v:toothache,frostbitev+n:crybaby,tell-talea+n:deadline,blueprintn+v-ing:brainwashing,air-conditioning第第141页
44、页v-ing+n:brainwashing,air-conditioningn+v-er:stockholder,bookselleradv+v:outbreak,downfallv+adv:sit-in,have-notv-ing+adv:going-over,carrying-onadv+v-ing:up-bringing第第142页页2)Adj Compoundsn+v-ing:law-abiding,record-breakinga+v-ing:easy-going,high-soundingn+a:warweary,thread-barea+a:deaf-mute,bitter-sw
45、eetn+v_ed:custom-built,town-breda(adv)+v-ed:far+fetched,hard-won第第143页页n(a)+n-ed:short-sighted,lion-heartednum+n:ten-storey,four-legnum+n-ed:one-eyed,two-leggedadv+v-ing:forth-coming,out-goingv-ed+adv:worn-out,washed-up第第144页页3)Verb Compoundsa)Through Conversionnickname(n):to nicknamehoneymoon(n):to
46、 honeymoonmoonlight(n):to moonlightfirst-name:to first-name第第145页页b)Through Backformationlip-reeding:to lip-readbottle-feeding:to bottle-feedcahin-smoker:to chain-smokemass production:to mass-produce 第第146页页4.3 ConversionConversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class into
47、another class,i.e.by turning words of one part of speech to those of another part of speech in traditional terms.Since the words that are made do not change morphological structure but in function,this process is also known as funtional shift.第第147页页1.Conversion to Nouns1)Deverbala.State(of mind or
48、sensation)doubt the state of doubtingwant what is wanteddesire,love,hate,smell,taste第第148页页b.Event of activitysearch the act of searchinglaugh the act of laughingattempt,hit,release,swim,shut-down,teach-in第第149页页c.Result o fthe actioncatch what is caughtfind what is foundreject,buy,hand-out,answer,b
49、et第第150页页d.Doer of the actionhelp one who helpscheat one who cheatsbore,coach,flirt,scold,stand-in第第151页页e.Tool or instrument to do the action with cover used to cover somethingwrap used to wrap somethingcure,paper,wrench第第152页页2)De-adjCommon adjsa white a crazy a gay a liberala native a Republican
50、specifics angriesfinals necessariesdrinkable valuables第第153页页Particles and othersa given a drunk young married newly-wedstwo unknowns offeringsten-year-olds new-borns第第154页页3)Miscellaneous Conversion1.Would you like a with or a without?2.Better to be an also-ran than a never was.3.His argument conta
