1、Unit7PragmaticPresuppositionPresuppositionOutlineIntroductionTheoryDailyuse AdsAnalysisPresuppositionandEntailmentTypesorTriggersPresuppositionIntroductionTheoryDailyUse AdsAnalysisPresuppositionandEntailmentTypesorTriggersPresupposition预 设Presupposition:Whataspeakerorwriterassumesthatthereceiversal
2、readyknowsWhydoespresuppositionexist?Because it enables us to communicate succinctly.It is much easier to say Johndoesntwriteanymorethan it is to say .ApersonwebothknowandagreethathisnameisJohn,andwhoknowshowtowrite,andwhoisabletowritepoetry,wrotepoetryinsomepasttime,andknowhedoesnotwritepoetryWatch
3、 a video advertisement,do you know what it is advertising?True LoveIlly CoffeePresuppositionIntroductionTheoryDailyUse AdsAnalysisPresuppositionandEntailmentTypesorTriggersDefinitionApresuppositionisbackgroundbelief,relatingtoanutterance,thatmustbemutuallyknownorassumedbythespeakerandaddresseeforthe
4、utterancetobeconsideredappropriateincontextgenerallywillremainanecessaryassumptionwhethertheutteranceisplacedintheformofanassertion,denial,orquestion,andcangenerallybeassociatedwithaspecificlexicalitemorgrammaticalfeature(presuppositiontrigger)intheutterance.Pragmaticpresuppositionis“somethingthespe
5、akerassumestobethecasepriortomakinganutteranceoramessagepreconditionfortheprocessingofanycommunication”(Yule,1996:25).Pragmaticpresuppositionsarebestdescribedasarelationbetweenaspeakerandtheappropriatenessofasentenceinacontext(Levinson,1997:177).Speakers,notsentences,havepresuppositions(Yule,1996:25
6、).何自然(1997)hassummarizedvariouskindsofpragmaticpresuppositionsasthefollowing:1)speakersassumptionofthecontextinwhichanutteranceismade,2)mutualknowledge,3)felicityconditionstobesatisfiedforaspeechacttobeperformed.TheutteranceJohnregretsthathestoppeddoinglinguisticsbeforeheleftCambridgehasthefollowing
7、presuppositions:ThereissomeoneuniquelyidentifiabletospeakerandaddresseeasJohn.JohnstoppeddoinglinguisticsbeforeheleftCambridge.JohnwasdoinglinguisticsbeforeheleftCambridge.JohnleftCambridge.JohnhadbeenatCambridge.SomemoreonthepragmatictheoryInfluentialexponentsincludeStalnaker(1974):suggestedthatwhe
8、npeoplecommunicate,theyhaveacommongroundthisisabackgroundsetofassumptionsthattheybothmake,andknowtobetruepresuppositionworksagainstthiscommongroundfelicitoususeofanutterancerequiresthatitspresuppositionsbecommonlyheldbyallinterlocutorsDealingwithnewpresuppositionsItsafactaboutcommunicationthatnoteve
9、rythingwepresupposeisknowntoourinterlocutorA:Mydogdied.B:Didntknowyouhadone.Waysout:wecanaskforclarificationsometimes,wedontbecausethepresuppositionisquiteclearandobviousWejustadoptit.AccommodationLewis(1979)suggestedthatinterlocutorscarryoutaccomodation:Ifattimetsomethingissaidthatpresupposesp,butp
10、isnotpresupposed(notincommonground),then,allotherthingsbeingequal,pisintroducedinthecommonground.Ordinaryconversationdoesnotalwaysproceedintheidealorderlyfashiondescribedearlier.Peopledomakeleapsandshortcutsbyusingsentenceswhosepresuppositionsarenotsatisfiedintheconversationalcontext.Thisistherulera
11、therthantheexceptionIthinkwecanmaintainthatasentenceisalwaystakentobeanincrementtoacontextthatsatisfiesitspresuppositions.Ifthecurrentconversationalcontextdoesnotsuffice,thelistenerisentitledandexpectedtoextenditasrequired.(Karttunen1974:191)AccommodationexampleSpeakerA(toB):Theguywhomurderedmycatwa
12、sreallyinsane.Theyvenowputhiminanasylum.SupposeBdidntknowmycatwasmurdered.ThedefinitedescriptiontheguywhomurderedmycatpresupposesthatthereisonepersonwhowasthemurdererofmycatBcanaccommodatethis,byassumingthatitstrueandisnowpartofcommongroundPresuppositionIntroductionTheoryDailyUse AdsAnalysisPresuppo
13、sitionandEntailmentTypesorTriggers预设在日常生活对话中旳应用和分析场景1：一家三口在吃火锅。背景是这家旳小孩很喜欢吃炸面筋。平时学校放学后他就喜欢立即去买来吃。恰好今日旳餐桌上就有炸面筋。对话就这么开始了。母亲：小新啊，你看，你最喜欢吃旳炸面筋好了。快趁热吃啊。儿子：立即夹起一块就放嘴里。母亲：怎样？不错吧？儿子：超好吃啊！母亲：你看，家里煮旳面筋又好吃，又洁净，后来尽量不要在外面吃了，懂得吗？儿子：哦，懂得了。分析：这里母亲在与儿子旳对话中预设了在外面吃不洁净，不好吃，所以对话中橙色部分就是预设。这里，预设了在外面吃东西不卫生这个客观情况。目旳：母亲与儿子旳
14、对话在这里到达了她旳教育旳目旳：后来不要在外面乱吃东西。场景场景2 2：大学宿舍：大学宿舍 小新刚下课。当他回到自己旳座位旁，小新刚下课。当他回到自己旳座位旁，发觉了女朋友送他旳水杯掉在了地上，发觉了女朋友送他旳水杯掉在了地上，旁边站着旳小觉是一脸无辜旳表情。旁边站着旳小觉是一脸无辜旳表情。小新：这是怎么回事？小新：这是怎么回事？小觉：这个，这个小觉：这个，这个小新：小新：你什么时候把他打烂旳？你什么时候把他打烂旳？小觉：不是我啊，我也刚进来小觉：不是我啊，我也刚进来 作用：预设除了能够用于教育小辈之外（例1），还能够使听者有被责备旳感觉。但是这会使对话无法进行下去。而且很轻易造成误会。因为这
15、里小新预设了杯就是小觉打烂旳。但事实可能是别人打烂或是别旳原因，只是小觉刚好站那里就招致误会了。当然，预设在日常生活中旳应用是举不胜举旳。此处就不再细列。PresuppositionIntroductionTheoryDailyUse AdsAnalysisPresuppositionandEntailmentTypesorTriggers动感地带周杰伦纸条篇 Student A:老师,我没有Student B:你看错了吧老师.老师,我们没有作弊.The teacher:你看到他们传纸条了吗?你看到他们作弊了吗?Student C:没有.他们发短信.他们发短信作弊.动感地带周杰伦纸条篇 短信无
16、处不在 我旳地盘,我旳短信台北市政府喝酒不开车篇我不该爱他.我爱他.我不该相信他.我相信他.我不该在他喝酒后来,还把车钥匙给他.他喝了酒.我把车钥匙给了他.DrunkAlcoholKeyoftheCarCarAccidentWrittenAdvertisements1.YoullwanttheCapitalOneNoHasslePlatinumcard,thedifferentcreditcardwithlowrate.Alowratethatstayslowwithoutintroductoryoffer,withoutexpiryrate.Justoneflatrateof6.9%p.af
17、orbothbalancetransfersandpurchases.Thatsit.Youcanrelax,knowingyouvegottheflatrate,andwonthavethehassleofswitchingcardsagain.TheCapitalOneNoHasslePlatinumcard.Lowratesthatstatlow.A.“1.YoullwanttheCapitalOneNoHasslePlatinumcard,thedifferentcreditcardwithlowrate”Thereisadifferentcreditcard,Thecreditcar
18、diswithalowrate.B.“withoutintroductoryoffer,withoutexpiryrate”Theothercreditcardsarewithintroductoryofferandexpiryrate.C.“knowingyouvegottheflatrate”ThereisaflatrateD.“wonthavethehassleofswitchingcardsagain”Youhadthehassleofswitchingcardsinthepast.HaveyourfortunetoldforTheYearofTheRooster.Redeemanex
19、clusivefortuneGuide2023.Career,money,romance,health-whatdoes2023haveinstoreforyou?MakLingLingandYauTinYuenhavealltheanswers,YoucanreadtheformersFortuneGuideTotheYearoftheRooster2023inEnglishatthespecialredemptionpriceof$25,orthelattersspecialChineseeditionfor$8.Andyouwillalsoreceiveafreefortunatecry
20、stalbracelet.Byfollowingtheiradvice,youcanenhanceyourgoodluckandavoidillfortuneintheyeartocome.Dontwaituntilitstoolate!A“whatdoes2023haveinstoreforyou?”Youhaveafixeddestinyin2023B“afreefortunatecrystalbracelet(手镯）”ThereisacrystalbraceletthatcanbringyouluckC“youcanenhanceyourgoodluckandavoidillfortun
21、eintheyeartocome.”ThereisgoodluckandillfortuneintheyeartocomeGoodluckcanbeenhancedIllfortunecanbeavoidedD“Dontwaituntilitstoolate!”Youneeditsomeday.Tosummarize,presuppositionsareacrucialpartofadvertisingastheycancausethereadertoconsidertheexistenceofobjects,propositions,andculturallydefinedbehaviora
22、lproperties:forexample,Haveyouhadyourdailyvitamins?presupposesthatyoutakeorneeddailyvitamins,therebycreatingandperpetuatingtheideathatthebehavioroftakingvitaminsdailyispartofourculture.Similarly,WhatsgreataboutChuckWagondogfood?(Geis1982,45)presupposesthatthereissomethinggreataboutthedogfood.Presupp
23、ositionIntroductionTheoryDailyUse AdsAnalysisPresuppositionandEntailmentTypesorTriggersPresupposition:Theinformationthataspeakerassumestobealreadyknown.(TheCambridgeEncyclopaediaofLanguage,1987)Implicitmeaningsconveyedbythespeakerthroughtheuseofparticularwords.Ex:TheColdWarhasendedpresupposesthatthe
24、existenceoftheentitiesitrefersto,inthiscasetheColdWar.Speakers,notsentences,havepresuppositionsEntailmentisnotapragmaticconcept.Itisdefinedaswhatlogicallyfollowsfromwhatisassertedintheutterance.Sentences,notspeakers,haveentailments.Example:Susanssisterboughttwohouses.ThissentencepresupposesthatSusan
25、existsandthatshehasasister.ThissentencehastheentailmentsthatSusanssisterboughtsomething;nowshehas2houses,ahouse,andothersimilarlogicalconsequences.Theentailmentsarecommunicatedwithoutbeingsaidandarenotdependentonthespeakersintention.Presupposition:Therelationshipbetweentwopropositions.Maryscatiscute
26、.(p)Maryhasacat.(q)pq=ppresupposesqIfthespeakerdeniesthepropositionp(NOTp),thepresuppositionqdoesntchange.Maryscatisntcute.(NOTp)Maryhasacat.(q)Notpq=NotppresupposesqPresupposition:Constancyundernegation:Thepresuppositionofastatementwillremaintrueevenwhenthatstatementisnegated.Presupposition:Otherex
27、amplesofconstancyundernegation:p:DaveisangrybecauseJimcrashedthecar.q:JimcrashedthecarpqNOTp:DaveisntangrybecauseJimcrashedthecarq:JimcrashedthecarNOTpqPresupposition:p:Mr.Singletonhasresumedhishabitofdrinkingstoutq:Mr.Singletonhadahabitofdrinkingstout.pqNOTp:Mr.Singletonhasntresumedhishabitofdrinki
28、ngstoutq:Mr.Singletonhadahabitofdrinkingstout.NOTpqEntailmentsentencesthatstandinanimplicationalrelation,wherethetruthofthefirstguaranteesthetruthofthesecond.Theanarchistassassinatedtheemperor.Theemperordied.So,thefirstsentenceentailsthesecond.A:Everyonepassedtheexamination.B:No-onefailedtheexaminat
29、ion.AentailsBwheneverAistrue,BistruetheinformationthatBcontainsiscontainedintheinformationthatAconveysasituationdescribablebyAmustalsobeasituationdescribablebyBAandNOTBarecontradictory.WetakeentailmentrelationstobethosethatspecificallyarisefromlinguisticstructureGenerallyspeaking,entailmentisnotapra
30、gmaticconcept(i.e.havingtodowiththespeakermeaning),butitisconsideredapurelylogicalconcept.Presuppositionsvs.entailmentsUtterancesandtheirpresuppositions.1)Shehasstoppedsmoking.presupposesSheusedtosmoke.2)Mydogatemybag.presupposesIhaveadog,andIhave(had)abag.Utterancesandtheirentailments.Theemperorwas
31、assassinatedentails1)Someonewasassassinated.2)Theemperordied.Presuppositionsaredifferentfromentailments.1)Shehasntstoppedsmoking.StillpresupposesSheusedtosmoke.2)Mydogdidnteatmybag.StillpresupposesIhaveadog,andI(still,itseems)haveabag.whileTheemperorwasntassassinated.Doesnotentailanymore1)Someonewas
32、assassinated.2)Theemperordied.PresuppositionIntroductionTheoryDailyUse AdsAnalysisPresuppositionandEntailmentTypesorTriggersTypesofPresuppositionPresuppositionsareassociatedwiththeuseofalargenumberofwords,phrasesandstructures.Theselinguisticformsareconsideredasindicatorsofpotentialpresupposition,whi
33、chcanonlybecomeactualpresuppositionincontextswithspeakers.1-Existentialpresupposition:Entitiesnamedbythespeakerandassumedtobepresent-nounphrase.-possessiveconstructions“Davidscarisnew”wecanpresupposethatDavidexistsandthathehasacar.Somelexicaltriggers:Definitenounphrases:Thestudentfellasleep.Thestude
34、ntdidntfallasleepDavidisabachelor(Davidisanunmarriedmaleperson)2-Factivepresupposition:identifiedbythepresenceofsomeverbssuchasknow“,realize“,“beglad”,“besorry”,etc.Somelexicaltriggers:Factiveverbs:TracyrealizedPatateasandwich.Patregrettedeatingasandwich.Patlikedeatingasandwich.Iwasawareoftheclassca
35、ncellationonMondayTheyannouncedthewinnerofthecontest.Imgladitsover.Shedidntrealizethatshewasill.3-Lexicalpresupposition:Inusingoneword,thespeakercanactasifanothermeaningwillbeunderstood.Forinstance:Marystoppedrunning.(Heusedtorun.)Youarelateagain.(Youwerelatebefore.)Areyoustillsuchabaddriver?(Youwer
36、eabaddriver)stop“,again“still”aretakentopresupposeanother(unstated)concept.Somelexicaltriggers:Changeofstateverbs:Patstoppedeatingasandwich(at2pm).Patstartedeatingasandwich(at2pm).Verbsofjudgment:TracyblamedPatforeatingthesandwich.TracyfaultsPatforeatingthesandwich.SusanisaccusedofX(Xisbad)Susanwasc
37、riticizedforX(XisbadandSusandidX)4-Structuralpresupposition:itistheassumptionassociatedwiththeuseofcertainstructures.-wh-questionconstructions.WhendidshetraveltotheUSA?(shetravelled)Wheredidyoubuythebook?(youboughtthebook)Thelistenerperceivesthattheinformationpresentedisnecessarilytrue,orintendedast
38、ruebythespeaker.5-Non-factivepresupposition:itisanassumptionreferredtosomethingthatisnottrue.Forexample,verbslikedream,imagineandpretendareusedwiththepresuppositionthatwhatfollowsisnottrue.IdreamedthatIwasrich.(Iwasnotrich)WeimaginedthatwewereinLondon.(WewerenotinLondon)6-Counterfactualpresuppositio
39、n:itistheassumptionthatwhatispresupposedisnotonlyuntrue,butistheoppositeofwhatistrue,orcontrarytofacts.conditionalstructures,Ifyouweremydaughter,Iwouldnotallowyoutodothis.(youarenotmydaughter)IfIwererichIwouldbuyaFerrari(Imnotrich)It-cleftconstruction/cleftsentences:a)ItwasTOMthatdidthework.b)Itwasn
40、tMEwhotookyourjacket.CleftsentencesareusedtohelpusfocusonaparticularpartofthesentenceandtoemphasisewhatwewanttosayBecausetherearetwopartstheyarecalledcleft(fromtheverbcleave)whichmeansdividedintotwo.Cleftsentencesareparticularlyusefulinwritingwherewecannotuseintonationforpurposesoffocusoremphasis,bu
41、ttheyarealsofrequentlyusedinspeech.Cleftstructuresincludethereasonwhy,thethingthat,theperson/peoplewho,theplacewhere,thedaywhenandwhat-clauseswhichareusuallylinkedtotheclausethatwewanttofocusonwithisorwas.From:BBCWorldserviceFromBarclaysWorldwide“,afour-monthlynewsletterforclientsofBarclaysbankwholi
42、veoutsidetheUK.1998summer-issue,apassageabouttheintroductionoftheEuro,titledEuroUpdate-Yourquestionsanswered.Britain may join in the lifetime of a future parliament the UK has not joined so far a carefully-expressed appreciation of the value of sterling TheCharacteristicsofPragmaticPresuppositionone
43、-sidedness,subjectivenessandsneakiness(陈新仁,1998).Allthesepropertiesmakepresuppositionsubjective,sneaky,deceptiveandmisleading.FelicityInthiscondition,felicitycanalsoberefereedasappropriateness.Pragmaticpresuppositionisoftenregardedasconditionsforthefelicitoususeofsentencestoperformaspeechact.“Anutte
44、ranceApragmaticallypresupposesapropositionBifAisappropriateonlyBismutuallyknownbyparticipants”(Levinson:1983).Thatpersonisnotabachelor-何自然(2023:113-4)(1)Heismarried.(2)Hesonlysixyearsold.(3)Thepersonisawoman.(4)Thepersonisawoman,whoismarried.(5)Thepersonisaspinster.Theaboveexampleshowsthatpresupposi
45、tionmustbeappropriatetothecontextsoastoguaranteethemeaningfulnessoftheutterance.Mutualknowledge“AnutteranceApragmaticallypresupposesapropositionBifAisappropriateonlyifBismutuallyknownbyparticipants”.Canyouclosethewindow?Presuppositionshouldbecommonlyknownoracceptedinformationfortheparticipantsofcomm
46、unication,otherwisethehearerwillmisunderstandthespeakersutterance.One-sidednessThisreferstothefactthatthepresuppositionismadeonlybytheaddresserhimselfandthatitexistsonlyinthemindoftheaddresserhimselfbeforethepresuppositionisinterpretedorinferredbytheaddressee.Mutualknowledgerelatestoutteranceunderst
47、andingwhileone-sidednessrelatestopragmaticpresuppositionitself.SubjectivenessPragmaticpresuppositionissubjective.Itisakindofcontextassumptionwithanassertivefeature.Itisnotnecessarytrueorcorrect.Pragmaticpresuppositionisdefinedasthebelieforattitudeofthespeakerorhearerconcerningthetruthofaproposition.
48、Itisnotaninevitabletruthbutanassumptionaboutthecontext.SneakinessPragmaticpresuppositioniscloselyconnectedwiththespeakersbelief,attitudeandintention.Inaddition,itcomesfrompeoplesknowledgeabouttheway,inwhichlanguageusersconventionallyinterpretthewordsandstructuresthattriggerit,sopresuppositionisconce
49、aledinaconversationandcanbequite“sneaky”.Doyoustillbeatyourwife?AnalysisofadvertisementWecantkeepsomethingthisjuicyasecret(Juicy,fromhttp:/www.Stanford.edu.htm).Thisadvertisementcanleaveaverydeepimpressiononthereaders.Theexistentialpresuppositionistriggeredbythedemonstrativepronoun“this”,whichpresup
50、posesthatthereissomething“thisjuicy”,andthenmakesanassertionaboutit.Oneimportantfunctionofthepresuppositionhereistopromoteakindofideologywithinadvertising;inthiscase,theidea“juiciness”issomehowrelatedtoshampooandhair.Mostproductsrangesomeculturalvaluesimposedontheminthisway,andadvertisingisthemainme
