1、 and voiceless obstruents are marked voiced. nThe place features are not binary features they are divided up into four values: nPLACE: Labial nPLACE: Coronal nPLACE: Dorsal nPLACE: Radical nThey are often written in shorthand forms as nLabialp nCoronalp nDorsalp nRadicalp nA useful feature for conso
2、nants not found here is spread (for spread glottis), which distinguishes between aspirated and unaspirated voiceless obstruents. nAspirated sounds are +spread and unaspirated sounds are spread. nNow we can represent the rule that governs the unaspiration of /p/ after s in terms of features: -cont -v
3、oice spread / s_ +spread in other places nThis is a more general rule, which also applies to /t/ and /k/. It means that /p, t, k/ (voiced, cont) are all unaspirated ( spread) after s and aspirated (+spread) in all other positions. Past tense forms in English nstopped, walked, coughed, kissed, leashe
4、d, reached nstabbed, wagged, achieved, buzzed, soothed, bridged nsteamed, stunned, pulled nplayed, flowed, studied nwanted, located, decided, guided nThe regular past tense form in English is pronounced as t when the word ends with a voiceless consonant, d when it ends with a voiced sound, and d whe
5、n it ends with t or d. 5. Suprasegmentals nSuprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. nThe principal suprasegmentals are: 5.1 The syllable structure Onset Rime Nucleus Coda k r k t nOpen syllable: bar, tie nClosed syllable: bard, tied nEnglish S
6、yllable: (C)C)C)V(C)C)C)C) nChinese syllable: (C)V(C) nMaximal Onset Principle (MOP) nWhen there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. E.g. telling 5.2 Stress nStress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. In transcription,
7、a raised vertical line is often used just before the syllable it relates to. nA basic distinction is made between stressed and unstressed syllables, the former being more prominent than the latter, which means that stress is a relative notion. nAt the word level, it only applies to words with at lea
8、st two syllables. nAt the sentence level, a monosyllabic word may be said to be stressed relative to other words in the sentence. Changing English Stress Pattern Becoming norm ninTEGral ncoMMUNal nforMIDable nconTROVersy Considered conservative nINtegral nCOMMunal nFORmidable nCONtroversy RP nlaBORa
9、tory nDEBris nGARage GA nLABoratory ndeBRIS ngaRAGE RP vs. GA Verb nconVICT ninSULT nproDUCE nreBEL Noun nCONvict nINsult nPROduce nREbel V vs. N nBLACKboard nBLACKbird nblack BOARD nblack BIRD Compound Phrase Compound vs. Phrase Primary vs. Secondary Stress nepiphenomenal nunsatisfactory ndiscrimin
10、ation nstandardization ncommunication nindustrialization Sentence Stress nJohn bought a red car. nJOHN bought a red car. nJohn BOUGHT a red car. nJohn bought a RED car. nJohn bought a red CAR. 5.3 Intonation nIntonation involves the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns,(重复出现的升降模式) each of whic
11、h is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length. nFor example, the fall-rise tone in English typically involves the meaning of a contrast within a limited set of items stated explicitly or implicitly. n(Isnt her name Mary?) No /
12、Jenny nThe old man didnt come / whereas the young man / did come and actually enjoyed himself n I didnt do it 5.4 Tone Putonghua pa Chinese character Pinyin Tone symbol Tone number Tone description Gloss 八b55 High leveleight 拔b35 High rising pull out 靶b214 Low falling rising target 坝b51 High falling
13、dam nA tone language is a languChapter TwoChapter Two Speech SoundsSpeech Sounds nAs human beings we are capable of making all kinds of sounds, but only some of these sounds have become units in the language system. nWe can analyze speech sounds from various perspectives and the two major areas of s
14、tudy are phonetics and phonology. nPhonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. nArticulatory Phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds. nAcoustic Phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds. nPerceptual or Auditory Phonetics is
15、 concerned with the perception of speech sounds. nPhonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. nIt aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. nIn phonology we normally begin by analy
16、zing an individual language, say English, in order to determine its phonological structure, i.e. which sound units are used and how they are put together. nThen we compare the properties of sound systems in different languages in order to make hypotheses about the rules that underlie the use of soun
17、ds in them, and ultimately we aim to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages. 1. How speech sounds are made 1.1 Speech organs Position of the vocal folds: voiceless Position of the vocal folds: voicing (initial nthey may narrow the space considerably; or nthey may simply
18、 modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other. nStop (or Plosive) nOral nthe position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back); nthe length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short), and nlip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded). nWe can now describe the Engl
19、ish vowels in this way: n high front tense unrounded vowel n high back lax rounded vowel n mid central lax unrounded vowel n low back lax rounded vowel 3. From phonetics to phonology nSpeech is a continuous process, so the vocal organs do not move from one sound segment to the next in a series of se
20、parate steps. Rather, sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors. nFor example, map, lamb. 3.1 Coarticulation nWhen such simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved, we call the process coarticulation. nIf the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of la
21、mb, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation. nIf the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is perseverative coarticulation, as is the case of map. nThe fact that the vowel in lamb has some quality of the following nasal is a phenomenon we call nasalization. nTo indicate that a vowe
22、l has been nasalized, we add a diacritic to the top of the symbol , as . np is aspirated in peak and unaspirated in speak. nThis aspirated voiceless bilabial stop is thus indicated by the diacritic h, as ph, whereas the unaspirated counterpart is transcribed as p. nWhen we use a simple set of symbol
23、s in our transcription, it is called a broad transcription. nThe use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription. nBoth are phonetic transcriptions so we put both forms in square brackets . 3.2 Phonemes nPhonology is not specifically concerned with
24、the physical properties of the speech production system. nPhoneticians are concerned with how sounds differ in the way they are pronounced while phonologists are interested in the patterning of such sounds and the rules that underlie such variations. nCrystal: Phonological analysis relies on the pri
25、nciple that certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phrase, whereas other sounds do not. nMinimal pairs test nPhonemes nThe word phoneme simply refers to a unit of explicit sound contrast: the existence of a minimal pair automatically grants phonemic status to the sounds responsible
26、 for the contrasts. nBy selecting one type of sound instead of another we can distinguish one word from another. nLanguages differ in the selection of contrastive sounds. nIn English, the distinction between aspirated ph and unaspirated p is not phonemic. nIn Chinese, however, the distinction betwee
27、n /p/ and /ph/ is phonemic. nBy convention, phonemic transcriptions are placed between slant lines (/ /) while phonetic transcriptions are placed between square brackets ( ). nIn phonetic terms, phonemic transcriptions represent the broad transcriptions. 3.3 Allophones np, ph are two different phone
28、s and are variants of the phoneme /p/. Such variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme. nIn this case the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution because they never occur in the same context: np occurs after s while ph occurs in other places. /p/ p / s _ ph elsew
29、here nThis phenomenon of variation in the pronunciation of phonemes in different positions is called allophony or allophonic variation. nVelarization: clear l and dark l / / _ V / V _ nThink about tell and telling! nPhonetic similarity: the allophones of a phoneme must bear some phonetic resemblance
30、. nFree variants and free variation 4. Phonological processes, phonological rules and distinctive features 4.1 Assimilation nNasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all instances of assimilation, a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.
31、nIf a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation. nThe converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as progressive assimilation. English Fricative Devoicing n/v/ f /z/ s etc. nvoiced fricative voiceless / _ voiceles
32、s nNasalization rule: -nasal +nasal / _ +nasal nDentalization rule: -dental dental / _ dental nVelarization rule: -velar +velar / _ +velar 4.2 Epenthesis, rule ordering and the Elsewhere Condition na hotel, a boy, a use, a wagon, a big man, a yellow rug, a white house nan apple, an honor, an orange
33、curtain, an old lady nEpenthesis (Insertion) Rule: Plurals in English na. The appears after voiceless sounds. nb. The appears after voiced sounds. nc. The appears after sibilants. n/ / voice, C _ (Devoicing) n / +sibilant _ (Epenthesis) Rule ordering nThe Elsewhere Condition The more specific rule a
34、pplies first. 4.3 Distinctive features nThe idea of Distinctive Features was first developed by Roman Jacobson (1896-1982) in the 1940s as a means of working out a set of phonological contrasts or oppositions to capture particular aspects of language sounds. nSince then several versions have been su
35、ggested. nSome of the major distinctions include consonantal, sonorant, nasal and voiced. nThe feature consonantal can distinguish between consonants and vowels, so all consonants are +consonantal and all vowels consonantal. nsonorant distinguishes between what we call obstruents (stops, fricatives
36、and affricates) and sonorants (all other consonants and vowels), with obstruents being sonorant and others +sonorant. nnasal and voiced of course distinguish nasal (including nasalized) sounds and voiced sounds respectively. nThese are known as binary features because we can group them into two cate
37、gories: one with this feature and the other without. nBinary features have two values or specifications denoted by + and so voiced obstruents are marked +voiced and voiceless obstruents are marked voiced. nThe place features are not binary features they are divided up into four values: nPLACE: Labia
38、l nPLACE: Coronal nPLACE: Dorsal nPLACE: Radical nThey are often written in shorthand forms as nLabialp nCoronalp nDorsalp nRadicalp nA useful feature for consonants not found here is spread (for spread glottis), which distinguishes between aspirated and unaspirated voiceless obstruents. nAspirated
39、sounds are +spread and unaspirated sounds are spread. nNow we can represent the rule that governs the unaspiration of /p/ after s in terms of features: -cont -voice spread / s_ +spread in other places nThis is a more general rule, which also applies to /t/ and /k/. It means that /p, t, k/ (voiced, c
40、ont) are all unaspirated ( spread) after s and aspirated (+spread) in all other positions. Past tense forms in English nstopped, walked, coughed, kissed, leashed, reached nstabbed, wagged, achieved, buzzed, soothed, bridged nsteamed, stunned, pulled nplayed, flowed, studied nwanted, located, decided
41、, guided nThe regular past tense form in English is pronounced as t when the word ends with a voiceless consonant, d when it ends with a voiced sound, and d when it ends with t or d. 5. Suprasegmentals nSuprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.
42、 nThe principal suprasegmentals are: 5.1 The syllable structure Onset Rime Nucleus Coda k r k t nOpen syllable: bar, tie nClosed syllable: bard, tied nEnglish Syllable: (C)C)C)V(C)C)C)C) nChinese syllable: (C)V(C) nMaximal Onset Principle (MOP) nWhen there is a choice as to where to place a consonan
43、t, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. 5.2 Stress nStress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. In transcription, a raised vertical line is often used just before the syllable it relates to. nA basic distinction is made between stressed and unstressed syllables, the
44、former being more prominent than the latter, which means that stress is a relative notion. nAt the word level, it only applies to words with at least two syllables. nAt the sentence level, a monosyllabic word may be said to be stressed relative to other words in the sentence. Changing English Stress
45、 Pattern Becoming norm ninTEGral ncoMMUNal nforMIDable nconTROVersy Considered conservative nINtegral nCOMMunal nFORmidable nCONtroversy RP nlaBORatory nDEBris nGARage GA nLABoratory ndeBRIS ngaRAGE RP vs. GA Verb nconVICT ninSULT nproDUCE nreBEL Noun nCONvict nINsult nPROduce nREbel V vs. N nBLACKboard nBLACKbird nblack BOARD nblack BIRD Compound Phrase Compound vs. Phrase Primary vs. Secondary Stress nepiphenomenal nunsatisfactory ndiscrimination nstandardization ncommunication nindustrialization Sentence Stress nJohn bought a red car. nJOHN bought a red car. nJohn
