1、COGNITIVE LINGUISTICSAN INTRODUCTIONVyvyan Evans and Melanie GreenEDINBURGH UNIVERSITY PRESS Vyvyan Evans and Melanie Green, 2006Edinburgh University Press Ltd 22 George Square, Edinburgh Typeset in Sabon and Gill Sansby Servis Filmsetting Ltd, Manchester, andprinted and bound in Great Britain by An
2、tony Rowe Ltd, Chippenham, WiltsA CIP record for this book is available from the British LibraryISBN 0 7486 1831 7 (hardback)ISBN 0 7486 1832 5 (paperback)The right of Vyvyan Evans and Melanie Greento be identified as authors of this work has been asserted in accordance withthe Copyright, Designs an
3、d Patents Act 1988.ContentsPrefacexixAcknowledgementsxxiiiAbbreviations, symbols and transcriptionxxvPart I Overview of the Cognitive Linguistics EnterpriseIntroduction31What does it mean to know a language?51.1What is language for?61.1.1The symbolic function of language61.1.2The interactive functio
4、n of language91.2The systematic structure of language111.2.1Evidence for a system121.2.2The systematic structure of thought141.3What do linguists do?151.3.1What?151.3.2Why?161.3.3How?161.3.4Speaker intuitions161.3.5Converging evidence171.4What it means to know a language181.5Summary20Further reading
5、22Exercises23v2The nature of cognitive linguistics: assumptions andcommitments272.1Two key commitments272.1.1The Generalisation Commitment282.1.2The Cognitive Commitment402.2The embodied mind442.2.1Embodied experience452.2.2Embodied cognition462.2.3Experiential realism472.3Cognitive semantics and co
6、gnitive approaches to grammar482.4Summary50Further reading50Exercises523Universals and variation in language, thought andexperience543.1Universals in thought and language553.1.1Typological universals573.1.2Universals in formal linguistics603.1.3Universals in cognitive linguistics633.2Cross-linguisti
7、c patterns in semantic systems683.2.1Patterns in the conceptualisation of space683.2.2Patterns in the conceptualisation of time753.3Cross-linguistic variation in semantic systems873.3.1Variation in the conceptualisation of space873.3.2Variation in the conceptualisation of time923.4Linguistic relativ
8、ity and cognitive linguistics953.4.1Whorf and the Linguistic Relativity Principle963.4.2Language as a shaper of thought983.4.3The cognitive linguistics position1013.5Summary101Further reading102Exercises1054Language in use: knowledge of language, language changeand language acquisition1084.1Language
9、 in use1094.1.1A usage event1094.1.2The relationship between usage and linguisticstructure1114.1.3Comprehension and production1124.1.4Context112COGNITIVE LINGUISTICS: AN INTRODUCTIONvi4.1.5Frequency1144.2Cognitive Grammar1144.2.1Abstraction, schematisation and language use1154.2.2Schemas and their i
10、nstantiations1154.2.3Partial sanction1164.2.4The non-reductive nature of schemas1174.2.5Frequency in schema formation1184.3A usage-based approach to language change1204.3.1Historical linguistics and language change1214.3.2The Utterance Selection Theory of language change1234.3.3The Generalised Theor
11、y of Selection and theTheory of Utterance Selection1254.3.4Causal mechanisms for language change1274.4The usage-based approach to language acquisition1334.4.1Empirical findings in language acquisition1344.4.2The cognitive view: socio-cognitive mechanismsin language acquisition1364.4.3Comparing the g
12、enerative view of languageacquisition1404.5Summary146Further reading147Exercises148Part II Cognitive SemanticsIntroduction1535What is cognitive semantics?1565.1Guiding principles1575.1.1Conceptual structure is embodied1575.1.2Semantic structure is conceptual structure1585.1.3Meaning representation i
13、s encyclopaedic1605.1.4Meaning construction is conceptualisation1625.2Phenomena investigated within cognitive semantics1635.2.1The bodily basis of meaning1635.2.2Conceptual structure1655.2.3Encyclopaedic semantics1665.2.4Mappings1675.2.5Categorisation1685.2.6Word meaning and polysemy1695.3Methodolog
14、y1705.4Some comparisons with formal approaches to semantics171CONTENTSvii5.5Summary172Further reading173Exercises1746Embodiment and conceptual structure1766.1Image schemas1776.1.1What is an image schema?1786.1.2Properties of image schemas1796.1.3Image schemas and linguistic meaning1896.1.4A provisio
15、nal list of image schemas1906.1.5Image schemas and abstract thought1906.2Conceptual structure1916.2.1Semantic structure1926.2.2Schematic systems1946.3Summary201Further reading201Exercises2027The encyclopaedic view of meaning2067.1Dictionaries versus encylopaedias2077.1.1The dictionary view2077.1.2Pr
16、oblems with the dictionary view2107.1.3Word meaning versus sentence meaning2137.1.4The encyclopaedic view2157.2Frame semantics2227.2.1What is a semantic frame?2227.2.2Frames in cognitive psychology2227.2.3The frame2257.2.4Speech event frames2287.2.5Consequences of adopting a frame-based model2297.3T
17、he theory of domains2307.3.1What is a domain?2307.3.2Basic, image-schematic and abstract domains2327.3.3Other characteristics of domains2357.3.4Profile/base organisation2367.3.5Active zones2387.4The perceptual basis of knowledge representation2407.5Summary243Further reading244Exercises245COGNITIVE L
18、INGUISTICS:AN INTRODUCTIONviii8Categorisation and idealised cognitive models2488.1Categorisation and cognitive semantics2498.1.1The classical theory2518.1.2The definitional problem2528.1.3The problem of conceptual fuzziness2538.1.4The problem of prototypicality2548.1.5Further problems2548.2Prototype
19、 theory2558.2.1Principles of categorisation2558.2.2The categorisation system2568.2.3The vertical dimension2568.2.4The horizontal dimension2648.2.5Problems with prototype theory2688.3The theory of idealised cognitive models2698.3.1Sources of typicality effects2708.3.2Radial categories as a further so
20、urce of typicalityeffects2758.3.3Addressing the problems with prototype theory2788.4The structure of ICMs2798.5Summary281Further reading282Exercises2839Metaphor and metonymy2869.1Literal versus figurative language2879.1.1Literal and figurative language as complex concepts2879.1.2Can the distinction
21、be maintained?2899.2What is metaphor?2939.3Conceptual Metaphor Theory2969.3.1The unidirectionality of metaphor2969.3.2Motivation for target and source2979.3.3Metaphorical entailments2989.3.4Metaphor systems2999.3.5Metaphors and image schemas3009.3.6Invariance3019.3.7The conceptual nature of metaphor
22、3039.3.8Hiding and highlighting3039.4Primary Metaphor Theory3049.4.1Primary and compound metaphors3049.4.2Experiential correlation3059.4.3Motivating primary metaphors3069.4.4Distinguishing primary and compound metaphors307CONTENTSix9.5What is metonymy?3109.6Conceptual metonymy3149.6.1Metonymy as an
23、access mechanism3159.6.2Metonymy-producing relationships3169.6.3Vehicles for metonymy3179.7Metaphor-metonymy interaction3189.8Summary321Further reading322Exercises32510Word meaning and radial categories32810.1Polysemy as a conceptual phenomenon32910.2Words as radial categories33110.3The full-specifi
24、cation approach33310.3.1Image schema transformations33710.3.2Metaphorical extensions33910.4Problems with the full-specification approach33910.5The Principled Polysemy approach34210.5.1Distinguishing between senses34210.5.2Establishing the prototypical sense34410.5.3Illustration of a radial category
25、based on PrincipledPolysemy34710.5.4Beyond prepositions34810.6The importance of context for polysemy35210.6.1Usage context: subsenses35310.6.2Sentential context: facets35410.6.3Knowledge context: ways of seeing35510.7Summary355Further reading356Exercises35911Meaning construction and mental spaces363
26、11.1Sentence meaning in formal semantics36411.2Meaning construction in cognitive semantics36511.3Towards a cognitive theory of meaning construction36811.4The architecture of mental space construction37111.4.1Space builders37111.4.2Elements37111.4.3Properties and relations37211.4.4Mental space lattic
27、es37411.4.5Counterparts and connectors37511.4.6The Access Principle376COGNITIVE LINGUISTICS:AN INTRODUCTIONx11.4.7Roles and values38111.5An illustration of mental space construction38211.6The dynamic nature of meaning construction38611.6.1Tense and aspect in English38711.6.2The tense-aspect system i
28、n Mental Spaces Theory38911.6.3Epistemic distance39411.7Summary396Further reading397Exercises39712Conceptual blending40012.1The origins of Blending Theory40112.2Towards a theory of conceptual integration40312.3The nature of blending40712.3.1The elements of conceptual blending40812.3.2Further linguis
29、tic examples41012.3.3Non-linguistic examples41512.4Vital relations and compressions41812.4.1Vital relations41912.4.2A taxonomy of vital relations and theircompressions42012.4.3Disintegration and decompression42512.5A taxonomy of integration networks42612.5.1Simplex networks42612.5.2Mirror networks42
30、612.5.3Single-scope networks42712.5.4Double-scope networks42912.6Multiple blending43112.7Constraining Blending Theory43312.8Comparing Blending Theory with Conceptual MetaphorTheory43512.8.1Contrasts43512.8.2When is a metaphor not a blend?43712.8.3What Blending Theory adds to ConceptualMetaphor Theor
31、y43712.9Summary439Further reading440Exercises44113Cognitive semantics in context44513.1Truth-conditional semantics44613.1.1Meaning, truth and reality446CONTENTSxi13.1.2Object language versus metalanguage44613.1.3The inconsistency of natural language44713.1.4Sentences and propositions44813.1.5Truth-c
32、onditional semantics and the generativeenterprise44913.1.6Compositionality of meaning45013.1.7Translating natural language into a metalanguage45113.1.8Semantic interpretation and matching45213.1.9Comparison with cognitive semantics45513.2Relevance Theory45913.2.1Ostensive communication45913.2.2Mutua
33、l cognitive environment45913.2.3Relevance46013.2.4Explicature and implicature46113.2.5Metaphor46313.2.6Comparison with cognitive semantics46313.3Summary465Further reading466Exercises466Part III Cognitive Approaches to GrammarIntroduction47114What is a cognitive approach to grammar?47514.1Guiding ass
34、umptions47614.1.1The symbolic thesis47614.1.2The usage-based thesis47814.1.3The architecture of the model47914.2Distinct cognitive approaches to grammar48014.2.1The Conceptual Structuring System Model48014.2.2Cognitive Grammar48014.2.3Constructional approaches to grammar48114.2.4Cognitive approaches
35、 to grammaticalisation48214.3Grammatical terminology48314.3.1Grammar48414.3.2Units of grammar48414.3.3Word classes48614.3.4Syntax49214.3.5Grammatical functions49414.3.6Agreement and case49814.4Characteristics of the cognitive approach to grammar500COGNITIVE LINGUISTICS:AN INTRODUCTIONxii14.4.1Gramma
36、tical knowledge: a structured inventory ofsymbolic units50114.4.2Features of the closed-class subsystem50214.4.3Schemas and instances50414.4.4Sanctioning and grammaticality50514.5Summary506Further reading507Exercises50915The conceptual basis of grammar51215.1The grammatical subsystem: encoding seman
37、tic structure51315.2Talmys Conceptual Structuring System Model51415.2.1The configuration of and 51515.2.2Conceptual alternativity51615.2.3Schematic systems51715.2.4The Configurational Structure System51815.2.5The Attentional System52615.2.6The Perspectival System52815.2.7The Force-Dynamics System531
38、15.3Langackers theory of Cognitive Grammar53315.3.1The conceptual basis of word classes53315.3.2Attention53515.3.3Force-dynamics54415.4Categorisation and polysemy in grammar: the network conception54515.5Summary548Further reading549Exercises55016Cognitive Grammar: word classes55316.1Word classes: li
39、nguistic categorisation55416.2Nominal predications: nouns55616.2.1Bounding55716.2.2Homogeneity versus heterogeneity55916.2.3Expansibility and contractibility versus replicability55916.2.4Abstractions56016.3Nominal versus relational predications56116.4Temporal versus atemporal relations56316.4.1Tempo
40、ral relations: verbs56416.4.2Atemporal relations56516.4.3Class schemas57016.5Nominal grounding predications572CONTENTSxiii16.5.1Determiners and quantifiers57216.5.2Grounding57516.6Summary577Further reading577Exercises57817Cognitive Grammar: constructions58117.1Phrase structure58217.1.1Valence58317.1
41、.2Correspondence58417.1.3Profile determinacy58517.1.4Conceptual autonomy versus conceptual dependence58517.1.5Constituency58817.1.6The prototypical grammatical construction58817.2Word structure58917.2.1Phonological autonomy and dependence59017.2.2Semantic autonomy and dependence59017.2.3Prototypical
42、 stems and affixes59117.2.4Composite structure59117.2.5Constructional schemas59217.2.6Grammatical morphemes and agreement59317.3Clauses59417.3.1Valence at the clause level59517.3.2Grammatical functions and transitivity60117.3.3Case60617.3.4Marked coding: the passive construction60917.4Summary610Furt
43、her reading611Exercises61218Cognitive Grammar: tense, aspect, mood and voice61518.1English verbs: form and function61618.2The clausal head61718.2.1The passive construction: be23V62018.2.2The progressive construction: be1-ing V62118.2.3The perfect construction: have 4V62118.3The grounding predication
44、: mood and tense62418.3.1Mood62518.3.2Tense62618.3.3The epistemic model62718.4Situation aspect631COGNITIVE LINGUISTICS:AN INTRODUCTIONxiv18.4.1Situation types63118.4.2Perfective and imperfective 63218.4.3Aspect and the count/mass distinction63418.5Summary637Further reading638Exercises63819Motivating
45、 a construction grammar64119.1Constructions versus words and rules64219.2Exploring idiomatic expressions64319.2.1Typology of idiomatic expressions64319.2.2Case study I: the let alone construction64819.2.3Case study II: the whats X doing Y construction65119.3Construction Grammar65319.3.1The Construct
46、ion Grammar model65319.3.2Construction Grammar: a broadly generativemodel65919.3.3Comparing Construction Grammar withCognitive Grammar66019.4The Generalisation Commitment66119.5Summary662Further reading662Exercises66320The architecture of construction grammars66620.1Goldbergs construction grammar667
47、20.1.1Assumptions66720.1.2Advantages of a constructional approach to verbargument structure66920.1.3The relationship between verbs and constructions67120.1.4Relationships between constructions68020.1.5Case studies68420.2Radical Construction Grammar69220.2.1Taxonomy of constructions69320.2.2Emphasis
48、on diversity69320.2.3Five key features of RCG69320.3Embodied Construction Grammar69720.3.1Emphasis on language processing69720.3.2Analysis and simulation69820.4Comparing constructional approaches to grammar69920.5Summary701CONTENTSxvFurther reading702Exercises70321Grammaticalisation70721.1The nature
49、 of grammaticalisation70821.1.1Form change71021.1.2Meaning change71221.2Metaphorical extension approaches71421.2.1Case study: -71821.2.2Case study: -71921.3Invited Inferencing Theory72121.3.1Case study: the evolution of must72521.4The subjectification approach72821.4.1Case study: be going to73021.4.
50、2Case study: the evolution of auxiliaries from verbsof motion or posture73021.5Comparison of the three approaches: be going to73221.6Summary733Further reading734Exercises73622Cognitive approaches to grammar in context74122.1Theories of grammar: assumptions, objectives,methodology74122.1.1Cognitive a
